Gandhian Era and India's National Movement Overview
The Gandhian Era, spanning roughly from 1915 to 1947, marks a transformative period in India's national movement. Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violent resistance, or Satyagraha, mobilized millions across the country, leading to significant campaigns like the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements, ultimately paving the way for India's independence from British colonial rule.
Key Takeaways
Gandhi's South Africa experiences shaped his Satyagraha philosophy.
Major movements like Non-Cooperation mobilized masses nationwide.
The Rowlatt Act and Jallianwala Bagh fueled widespread dissent.
Constitutional reforms were debated at Round Table Conferences.
Nehru Report and Jinnah's points highlighted constitutional challenges.
What were the formative experiences and early movements of Mahatma Gandhi?
Mahatma Gandhi's early life and movements significantly shaped his philosophy of non-violent resistance, known as Satyagraha. His two-decade stay in South Africa, from 1893 to 1915, exposed him to racial discrimination and inspired his first experiments with civil disobedience. Upon returning to India, he gradually entered national politics, leading localized movements that tested his methods and garnered widespread support. These initial campaigns laid the groundwork for his future leadership in India's struggle for independence, demonstrating the power of collective non-violent action.
- Stay in South Africa (1893-1915) involved incidents like Pietermaritzburg and founding Natal Indian Congress.
- He established Phoenix Farm (1904) and Tolstoy Farm (Johannesburg) for community living.
- First experiment with Satyagraha occurred in South Africa in 1906.
- Early Indian movements included Champaran Satyagraha (1917), Ahmedabad Mill Workers' Strike (1918), and Kheda Satyagraha (1918).
How did the Rowlatt Act and subsequent Satyagraha impact India's national movement?
The Rowlatt Act, passed in March 1919, was a draconian law that allowed the British government to imprison individuals without trial, sparking widespread outrage across India. Mahatma Gandhi initiated the Rowlatt Satyagraha, his first all-India protest, to challenge this 'Black Act.' This movement, characterized by an all-India strike, unfortunately led to violence in some areas and culminated in the tragic Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. The massacre, where General Dyer ordered firing on unarmed civilians, intensified nationalist sentiment and exposed the brutal nature of British rule, galvanizing further resistance.
- The Rowlatt Act, also known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919, was passed on March 18, 1919.
- It was famously called 'law without lawyer, without appeal, and without argument' by Motilal Nehru.
- Gandhi established 'Satyagraha Sabha' in February 1919 to organize the protest.
- The first all-India strike occurred on April 6, 1919, leading to Gandhi's arrest.
- The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre on April 13, 1919, resulted in over 1000 deaths, ordered by General Dyer.
Why was the Khilafat Movement significant for Hindu-Muslim unity in India?
The Khilafat Movement, initiated in 1919, was a pan-Islamic political protest campaign launched by Indian Muslims to pressure the British government to protect the integrity of the Ottoman Caliphate, which was threatened after World War I. Mahatma Gandhi saw this as a unique opportunity to unite Hindus and Muslims in the common struggle against British rule. By supporting the Khilafat cause, Gandhi aimed to forge a strong, unified front, believing that Hindu-Muslim unity was crucial for achieving India's independence. This alliance temporarily strengthened the nationalist movement, demonstrating the potential for inter-community cooperation.
- The movement arose from Britain's decision to partition Turkey after WWI, affecting the Caliph of Islam.
- It was started by Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, known as the Ali brothers.
- The 'All India Khilafat Committee' was established in September 1919.
- Gandhiji presided over the first session of the All India Khilafat Committee in Delhi on November 23, 1919.
- Gandhiji suggested launching the Non-Cooperation Movement in conjunction with Khilafat.
What were the key aspects and eventual outcome of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
The Non-Cooperation Movement, launched in 1920, was a pivotal phase in India's freedom struggle, led by Mahatma Gandhi. It aimed to resist British rule through non-violent means, encompassing both constructive and negative programs. The constructive program focused on building self-reliance through national education, promoting Khadi, and fostering Hindu-Muslim unity. The negative program involved boycotting British institutions, goods, and titles. Despite widespread participation and initial success, the movement was abruptly called off by Gandhi in 1922 following the violent Chauri-Chaura Incident, where protestors clashed with police, leading to casualties. This decision, though controversial, underscored Gandhi's unwavering commitment to non-violence.
- The movement was formally launched on August 1, 1920, following the Calcutta and Nagpur Congress sessions.
- Constructive programs included establishing national schools, promoting Charkha, and strengthening Hindu-Muslim unity.
- Negative programs involved renouncing government titles, boycotting foreign goods, and resigning from official posts.
- Boycott of foreign cloth was a major success, with public burning of clothes.
- The Chauri-Chaura Incident on February 4, 1922, led to violence and the movement's suspension.
Why was the Swaraj Party formed, and what were its objectives?
The Swaraj Party was formed in 1923 by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru following disagreements within the Indian National Congress regarding participation in legislative councils after the suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement. While a faction of Congress favored constructive work outside the councils, the Swarajists believed in entering the legislative bodies to obstruct government functioning from within and expose the flaws of British reforms. Their objective was to achieve 'Swaraj' (self-rule) by challenging the British administration through constitutional means, rather than outright boycott. This strategic shift aimed to maintain political pressure on the colonial government.
- Formed after Congress rejected council entry at the Gaya session in 1922.
- Announced on December 31, 1922, and established in Allahabad in March 1923.
- C.R. Das served as President, and Motilal Nehru as Secretary.
- The Gandhi-Das Agreement (1924) allowed the Swaraj Party to function within Congress.
- Achieved success in municipal elections, with leaders becoming mayors in various cities.
What was the Simon Commission, and how did India respond to it?
The Simon Commission, appointed in 1927, was a seven-member all-British parliamentary commission tasked with reviewing India's constitutional progress and recommending further reforms. Its exclusion of any Indian members sparked widespread indignation and was perceived as a direct insult to Indian self-respect and political aspirations. Indian political parties, including the Indian National Congress and factions of the Muslim League, unanimously decided to boycott the commission. Upon its arrival in India in 1928, it was met with massive protests, black flags, and the slogan 'Simon Go Back,' highlighting the unified demand for Indian representation in shaping their own future.
- Appointed by British PM Stanley Baldwin in 1927, two years earlier than mandated.
- It was an all-British, seven-member commission led by Sir John Simon, hence called the 'White Commission'.
- Indian parties, including Congress and a Muslim League faction, decided to boycott it due to lack of Indian members.
- Protests across India, notably in Lahore where Lala Lajpat Rai was fatally injured during a police baton charge.
- The commission's report (1930) recommended ending dyarchy, establishing provincial responsible government, and a federal system.
What were the main proposals of the Nehru Report, and how was it received?
The Nehru Report, drafted in 1928 by a committee led by Motilal Nehru, was India's first attempt to outline a comprehensive constitutional framework, responding to Lord Birkenhead's challenge to Indian leaders. Its main proposals included demanding Dominion Status for India, abolishing communal electorates in favor of joint electorates with reserved seats for minorities, and reorganizing provinces on a linguistic basis. It also advocated for fundamental rights, adult franchise, and a secular state. While approved by an all-party conference, it faced opposition from young Congress leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, who demanded complete independence, and from Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who proposed alternative demands for Muslim representation, leading to his 'Fourteen Points.'
- Drafted in response to Lord Birkenhead's challenge to Indians to create their own constitution.
- Motilal Nehru chaired the committee, with Jawaharlal Nehru as secretary.
- Key recommendations included Dominion Status, joint electorates, and linguistic provinces.
- It proposed 19 fundamental rights, responsible government, and a bicameral legislature.
- Young Congress leaders opposed Dominion Status, advocating for complete independence.
- Jinnah's 'Fourteen Points' emerged as a counter-proposal, rejecting aspects of the report.
How did the Civil Disobedience Movement, including the Dandi March, challenge British rule?
The Civil Disobedience Movement, launched in 1930, represented a significant escalation in India's struggle for independence, directly challenging British authority through non-violent defiance of unjust laws. It began dramatically with the Dandi March, where Mahatma Gandhi and his followers marched 385 km to symbolically break the Salt Law, which monopolized salt production and taxed a basic necessity. This act ignited nationwide protests, including widespread salt law violations, boycotts of foreign goods, and refusal to pay taxes. The movement expanded across various regions, mobilizing diverse sections of society and demonstrating the power of mass civil disobedience against colonial oppression, despite facing severe repression from the British government.
- The Dandi March began on March 12, 1930, from Sabarmati Ashram, covering 385 km in 24 days.
- Gandhiji symbolically broke the Salt Law at Dandi on April 6, 1930, initiating the movement.
- Main programs included violating the Salt Law, picketing shops, and refusing to pay taxes.
- The movement expanded regionally, with leaders like C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan in NWFP.
- Key events included Gandhi's arrest, the Dharasana Salt Works raid, and widespread strikes.
What were the outcomes and key participants of the Round Table Conferences?
The Round Table Conferences, held in London between 1930 and 1932, were a series of peace conferences organized by the British government to discuss constitutional reforms in India. The first conference (1930-31) saw no participation from the Indian National Congress, rendering its discussions largely inconclusive. The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) facilitated Gandhi's attendance at the second conference (1931) as the sole Congress representative. However, this conference failed to achieve a consensus, particularly on the issue of separate electorates for minorities, leading to Gandhi's return 'empty-handed.' The third conference (1932) also lacked Congress participation. These conferences ultimately contributed to the Government of India Act of 1935 but highlighted the deep divisions and the British reluctance to concede full self-rule.
- The First Round Table Conference (1930-31) was inaugurated by King George V, with no Congress participation.
- The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) led to the suspension of Civil Disobedience and Gandhi's release.
- The Karachi Session (1931) approved the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and passed resolutions on Fundamental Rights.
- Gandhiji attended the Second Round Table Conference (1931) as the sole Congress representative.
- The Communal Award (1932) granted separate electorates to various communities, including Depressed Classes.
- The Poona Pact (1932) between Gandhi and Ambedkar replaced separate electorates for Dalits with reserved seats.
- The Third Round Table Conference (1932) also saw no Congress participation.
Frequently Asked Questions
What was the significance of Gandhi's time in South Africa?
Gandhi's two decades in South Africa were crucial. He developed and first experimented with his philosophy of Satyagraha, or non-violent resistance, against racial discrimination. These experiences profoundly shaped his leadership and methods for India's independence movement.
Why was the Rowlatt Act called the 'Black Act'?
The Rowlatt Act was dubbed the 'Black Act' because it allowed the British government to detain individuals without trial. This draconian measure suspended civil liberties, leading to widespread protests and fueling Indian resentment against colonial rule.
What was the main goal of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
The Non-Cooperation Movement aimed to resist British rule through non-violent means. Its main goal was to achieve Swaraj (self-rule) by boycotting British institutions, goods, and titles, while simultaneously promoting self-reliance and Hindu-Muslim unity.
Why did the Simon Commission face widespread boycott in India?
The Simon Commission faced widespread boycott because it was an all-British body appointed to review India's constitutional future, with no Indian members. This exclusion was seen as an insult to Indian self-respect and their right to determine their own destiny.
What was the outcome of the Poona Pact of 1932?
The Poona Pact, signed between Gandhi and Ambedkar, abolished separate electorates for Dalits. Instead, it reserved 148 seats for Dalits in provincial legislatures, a significant increase from the 71 seats initially proposed by the Communal Award, promoting joint electorates.
